Childrens literature

Are children better off now than they were 50 years ago? Comparing childhood today with childhood 50 years ago, there are many dramatic changes. There are new forms of media such as television and the internet. Family structures and emphasis on values today are nothing like they were 50 years ago. It was odd if a family did not sit at the dinner table together. Today there is so much going on it is odd to sit at the dinner table together.Even people's life goals and utlook on life are much different. It is no wonder with all the changes that people believe life for a child is much harder today than it was 50 years ago. Children 50 years ago lived a much more sheltered life than the children of today. A young person's family should be the strongest influence in their life. It is more work to raise a child today and parents seldom take responsibility for their child's actions. We need to monitor their friends, their internet use and their phone conversations to keep them on the right t rack. 0 years ago, mom's stayed home to take care of the ids and dads went out to work to provide for their families. Life was much more simple back then, although they did not have all the resources that we have today. Today we rely on daycare settings and babysitters to take care of our children as more and more moms have to work outside of the home. In children's literature books the fairytale of the moms staying home to care for the children and the dads going out to work is portrayed. Lecture 3 Does children's literature influence a child's perspective on society and their role in it?The books that are read to children and the books that they read themselves can alter who they become when they become adults. Rather than not reading to a child at all it is important to explain to a child that children's literature is fun to read and the books are mostly fairytales. I think children's literature is important because it reflects a time in which it was written and the changes of so cial values such as gender, race and sexual orientation. Generally, past societies viewed woman as the homemakers, cooking, cleaning and caring for the children, while the men went out o work and were the providers for their families.This view was past from generation to generation eventually leading to gender role stereotypes. This portrayed women as inferior, unintelligent, emotional and needy whose only role was to cook, clean and care for the kids. Social views toward woman have changed. Though still not equal, the perception of a woman's roles today appears less stereotyped than in the past. Unfortunately gender stereotypes still exist in children's literature today though maybe not as much. Today, the typical stereotypes are that boys are tough and girls re weak.Children's literature portrays boys being adventurous and playing sports and girls dressing up or playing with dolls. There are plenty of children's books that that girls have to work Just as hard as boys and that ther e education is Just as important because the fairytale of women staying home to care for the kids is almost non existent. Racism has been another issue in children's literature. Children's literature reflects a time of prejudice attitudes and racial content. Children's literature early on depicted certain races in unethical ways, maybe not on purpose.Children's literature has come a long way with teaching children that being different is not always bad. I believe that children should be taught from an early age the importance of acceptance. The world has become so diverse that people need to realize and teach their children that there are all different kinds of people especially due to migration and multi-cultural marriages. Sexual orientation is another big reflection in children's literature books. For the most part, alternative families were greatly forbidden by past societies.I think this is one topic that is probably still a battle over same-sex marriages and homosexuality. I w ould think that some if not most people would think these kinds of books would have a negative effect on a child, but again children need to learn that it is not always bad to be different. They need to be taught how to deal with different situations. Children should never be restrained from reading literature that might contain offensive content because is shows them hardship, differences and ignorance that people have had to overcome throughout their lives.This would Just remind them of how lucky and fortunate that they are today. This would show them Just how far we progressed in changing life in a positive way. Although racism, stereotyping and prejudices are still present today, every child if properly brought up can contribute to the cause of ending this. Giving children literature that shows them what the past was like can teach them why racial diversity and cultural relativity is so important today. Children of all races and ethnicities can benefit from reading literature of the past and present

Apple Case: The Evolution Of Industry Structure Over Time Essay

1. What is the evolution of the industry structure over time and its implication for strategic positioning? PC buyers can be classified in to home,small- and medium-sized business (SMB),corporate, education, and government. Home consumers represented the biggest segment, accounting for nearly half of the worldwide shipments. Evolution : Though the first commercial computer (UNIVAC) was released in 1951 the credit of mass marketization of computers should be given to Apple-I computer in 1976. Though it was released targeting common man, majority of the Apple users used it for commercial and educational purpose. Due to inconsistence performance and hardware issues this was not a huge success. Four years later IBM with MS Dos revolutionized the concept of personal computer. Due to its consistence performance, user friendly GUI and more importantly affordable price made IBM pc a huge hit in market. IBM – Open source — evolution of IBM clones Too many market players lead to price war, cost leadership Apple restricted itself to it’s MAC ecosystem, there by following differentiation. Post steve job’s exit from Apple, Sculley tried to move Apple into mainstream – cost leadership. It failed; Amelio proclaimed that Apple would return to its premium-price differentiation. 2. What is nature of sustainable competitive advantage? CA rests on the notion that cheap labor is ubiquitous and natural resources are not necessary for a good economy. â€Å"Competitive advantage occurs when an organization acquires or develops an attribute or combination of attributes that allows it to outperform its competitors. These attributes can include access to natural resources, such as high grade ores or inexpensive power, or access to highly trained and skilled personnel human resources. New technologies such as robotics and information technology either to be included as a part of the product, or to assist making it. ‘ Information technology has become such a prominent part of the modern business world that it can also contribute to competitive advantage by outperforming competitors with regard to internet presence. From the very beginning, i.e. Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, the central problem of information transmittal, leading to the rise of middle-men in the marketplace, has been a significant impediment in gaining competitive advantage. By using the internet as the middle-man, the purveyor of information to the final consumer, businesses can gain a competitive advantage through creation of an effective website, which in the past required extensive effort finding the right middle-man and cultivating the relationship.† (This is a generic question so answered it from wiki) 3. What performance was obtained over the different leadership styles? Steve Jobs : setup the company, Autocratic,innovative. He paired up with Woznivik in 1976 and founded Apple. His mission is to bring an easy-to-use computer to market, which lead to APPLE-II in 1978. He grew it to a 1 billion sales in less than three years. BY 1980, Apple sold 100K computes. Between 1981 – 86 net come fallen by 62% , steve jobs was fired Steve Jobs Part –II : Reshaped Apple. $150 million to invest on a 5 year plan to develop core products. Stopped Apple license sales to the clones for new Mac OS. Introduced website to open direct sales. He want to recover IBM’s imagem retained Pixar CEO position. Launched multi-million dollar marketing campaigns such as â€Å"Think Different† Sculley : He pushed the Mac into new markets (mainly in desktop publishing and education). The main focus is on proprietary software like Aldus Pagemaker and peripherals such as laser printers. He evolved apple as a customer friendly systems that’s just plug and play. Analysts noted that this approach made Apple’s customers ‘love’ their Macs. He tried to move Apple into mainstream by becoming a low cost producer of computers. During his tenure Mac classic was introduced at $999 to compete head-to-head with low priced IBM clones. He tried to forge an alliance with IBM to develop a develop a new OS. He tried to develop a new chipset in collaboration with Novell and Intel to run on Mac OS. His main ambition is to bring a â€Å"hit† product every 6 to 12 months and capture the whole PC market. Inspite ofall these efforts Apple’s gross margin dropped to 34% which is an all-time low which lead to replacement of Sculley with Michael Spindler. Spindler era : Cuts 16% of work force. Globalisation – lead to 45% of sales outside US. JV with IBM to develop new OS failed leading to $69 million loss. Which lead to Amelio as CEO Amelio era :Back to Premium-price differentiation. Macintosh sales still fallen which lead to recruitment of Steve jobs as the interim CEO. Timeline Apple| Year| Event| +ve| -ve| 1976| Apple computer started| Jobs and Wozniak’s technology and Markkula’s financing abilities| NA| 1978| Apple II released| $1 billion in sales, Apple becomes industry leader| | 1980| IPO launched| Sold 100,000 Apple IIs, Era of fast growth for Apple| | 1981| IBM enters PC market| IBMs open approach, horizontal and vertical integration, Apple’s refusal to license hardware| Apple’s closed approach.| | | | Apple’s net income fell 62% between 1981 and 1984| 1984| McIntosh is launched| ease of use, good industrial design, technical elegance| Macs slow processor speed, lack of compatibility caused limited sales| | Jobs fired, Scully comes in| | | 1985-1993| | | | 1990| Apple’s complete desktop solution| Apple’s focus on desktop publishing and education, â€Å"plug and play†, unique chips, disk drives, monitors.| IBM narrows the gap in ease of use| | | Design versus compatibility| | | | Love for Macs| Just putting up with IBM machines| | Apple’s premium price strategy| Premium Macs sold for as much as $10,000, Gross profit hovered at 50%| IBM compatibles lowered costs| | Apple tries to move into cost leadership with Mac Classic| | Moving to cost leadership from differentiation| | Joint venture for new OS and multimedia applications| Working towards making Macs compatible, joint project with Intel| Dropped gross margin to 34%| 1993| Michael Spindler replaced Sculley| | | 1993-1997| Spindler & Amelio years| | Reverse trend, Apple lost momentum, Apple and IBM parted ways| | | | $69 million loss| | | | Cost cutting| 1996| Amelio appointed as the new CEO| | | | | | 1.6 bn loss| 1997| NeXT is bought by Apple| Jobs takes over as CEO in September 1997| | | Microsoft’s investment of $150 million in Apple| Five year commitment to develop MS office products for Mac| | | | 15 product lines slashed to 4| | | | Operational efficiency through improved distribution systems, direct sales, focus on innovation, Increased R&D| | Mac and Apple’s digital Hub strategy Shift to Intel CPU’s – With Intel inside Mac also became a machine that could natively run a Windows OS along with Windows applications * Operating System – Mac OS based on UNIX with ugrades at greater frequency than what Microsoft does * Application – Building programs on iLife suite – iPhoto, iTunes, iWeb. Web browser Safari, and iwork productivity applications * Distribution – The Apple retail experience. Retail division 280 stores in 10 countries. Partnership with ‘Best Buy’ – World’s largest electronic retailer

Apis Mellifera: The Life of the Western Honey Bee Essay

Who would think that an insect less than an inch big could be of so much importance to the human society? Throughout the history of mankind, the Western Honey Bee has proven to be of many uses to the human society. The study of the honey bee has shown the true intricacy and efficiency of their colony. Each member of the colony works together in a nearly flawless environment of productivity. For these reasons, and many more, the Western honey bee has proven itself to be one of the most fascinating and useful insects there has ever been. In order to be able to understand the honey bee and its colony, one must first learn about the bee’s physical make-up. Similar to a typical insect, the Western honey bee can be divided into three major sections; these sections are the head, thorax, and abdomen. The first section, the head, is a very intricate part of the body. The head contains the eyes, antennae, and the mouthparts. The eyes are an intriguing feature, seeing as the honey bee has two different types of eyes. The first type is the two compound eyes. The compound eyes are more of the typical kind of eyes. These eyes can sense light and color, though the bee’s spectrum of color varies slightly from the human eye’s spectrum. The honey bee also has three simple eyes, which are called ocelli. The only known function that these eyes serve is to sense the intensity of the light (Dade 65). The two antennae also play a crucial role in the life of the bee. The antennae are the nose of the honey bee, allowing it to sense odors. Along with sensing odors, the antennae aid in their ability to taste. The mouthparts of the honey bee contain the mandibles and proboscis. The mandibles are jaws that help in chewing, grooming, and several other functions. The proboscis is similar to the human tongue in the fact that its function is to lick and suck up nectar into the honey bee’s mouth. The next section of the bee, the thorax, contains the legs and wings. These both contribute to the mobility of the bee. There are six legs on a honey bee which come in three pairs. The legs perform multiple functions, among these being that they aid in mobility, grooming, and storing pollen. The honey bee possesses two pairs of wings, the front wings and the hind wings. These wings provide for very efficient flight, allowing the bee to beat its wings at an astounding rate of 200 times per second; they have also been known to travel up to 60 kilometers on one meal (Winston 26-29). The third and final section of the bee is the abdomen. The most well-known and feared function of the bee, the stinger, is found in the abdomen. Large portions of the bee’s digestive, excretory, circulatory, and respiratory systems are also found in the abdomen. The internal systems of the honey bee are as fascinating as its physical qualities. Much like a human, the honey bee also has a digestive system. When a bee consumes food, it travels through its esophagus to its crop. While in the crop the food can be regurgitated and transferred to another bee. After passing through the crop, the food travels to the midgut. This is where the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place in the bee. Then the digested food is either excreted through the rectum or used for energy. The circulatory and respiratory systems of the honey bee are fairly simple with the dorsal heart and aorta being the main contributors in blood circulation. Unlike a human, the bee does not have veins and arteries for the blood to travel through. Instead, the blood fills the body cavity and enters the heart through the ostia. After passing through the ostia and heart, the blood travels to the head. The honey bee respiratory system also varies a great deal from the human’s. The honey bee breathes through holes called spiracles. These spiracles are connected to the tracheae which are tubes that transport the oxygen in and the carbon dioxide out of the bee. The honey bee’s ability to fly is a very important and interesting ability. As mentioned previously, the honey bee has 4 wings, a pair of frontal wings and a pair of hind wings which are located on the thorax. There are two muscle systems that move the wings, the direct and indirect muscles. The direct muscles are attached directly to the bases of the wings, whereas the indirect muscles are located in the thorax but are not attached to the wing bases. The indirect flight muscles are much larger than the direct flight muscles and likewise play a greater role in the honey bee’s flight. The indirect muscles control the up-and-down wing strokes as well as the back and forth strokes. There are two sections of the indirect muscles, the vertical muscles and the longitudinal muscles. There is a pair of each of these two types of indirect muscles. The vertical and longitudinal muscles expand alternately; this causes the wing to flap, providing the motion for flight. This happens at an extremely quick pace, which allows the wings to beat at 200 beats per second. Not only can it do this quickly, but it can do it efficiently. The bee can travel for very long periods on just one meal. Honey bees live on just three items; these are nectar, pollen, and water. Nectar provides carbohydrates for the bees, while the pollen provides proteins. Most of the nectar and pollen that the bees collect though is used in the production of honey. In a summer, a typical honey bee colony of around 30,000 bees consumes about 20kg of pollen (Seeley 82). If you multiply out the distance required for an average travel times the 1. 3 million foraging trips that it would require to harvest 20kg of pollen, then it would be equivalent to traveling to the moon and back over seven times. The water, too, aids in the production of honey, counting for 18% of the make-up of honey (Dade 43). Though it is probably not surprising because they are called honey bees, the bees’ number one food intake is honey. The bees put out a lot of energy gathering all of their pollen and nectar; this requires them to eat a large amount in order to have enough energy to complete all of their honey production. Western honey bees often build their hives in forest tree branches. Studies have shown that the scouts are very picky when searching for a future nest site. The scouts tend to choose a nest location that is not too far from their current location, yet they prefer nests that are not too close either. Scouts seem to prefer a nest site that has an entrance facing south because the south tends to receive more sunlight. They also desire for the nest site to be positioned roughly three or four meters above the ground (Seeley 73). Once a location is decided upon by the colony, the comb construction is started immediately. The workers in the colony start to mass produce beeswax for the construction of the comb. In order to be able to produce the wax, worker bees eat pollen for the first week that they are alive. The workers really focus on building the new nest since virtually nothing can happen in the colony without the comb. Their hard work pays off; they can accomplish over 90% of the comb building in merely 45 days or even less. The bees have an intricate design for the honey comb. They form hexagonal shaped cells in the comb, maximizing the amount possible. These cells come in three different sizes. The smaller size is for the worker eggs, the slightly larger size is for the drone eggs, and the largest size is saved for the queen eggs. However, there are less than 20 cells for the queens. The left over cells that are not being used for the reproduction of the bees are put into use as storage cells. This is where honey is stored after it is formed. There are three different types of members of a honey bee colony. There are workers, drones, and the queen. All three of these play a vital role in keeping the colony working in harmony. The first of these three is the worker bee. Worker bees are female, yet they never become fully sexually developed like the queen does. The worker bees, as one can imagine, provide the work force of the colony. They are the scavengers and collectors of pollen and nectar. Worker bees also take part in the reproduction process by laying unfertilized eggs that will hatch as drones. The average life span of a worker bee varies depending on the season. If born during the spring or summer, their life span is just a month on average. However, if born during the winter then they can live for up to half of a year (Erickson, Carlson, and Garment 100). The second type in the honey bee colony is the drone. Drones are fatherless, male bees that have hatched from unfertilized eggs. As a result of having no father, the drones only have 16 chromosomes instead of the normal 32 that worker and queen bees have. The lifetime of a drone is just two months during the summer, which is the only time that they are present n a colony. When the summer is over, the drones are kicked out of the colony. In the end, this causes them to die of starvation. The only real purpose that the drones serve in the colony is to mate with the queen bee. After mating with the queen bee, the drone is killed from the process. The third and final type of bee in the honey bee colony is the queen bee. The queen bee comes from fertilized eggs and is the only member of the honey bee colony to achieve full sexual maturity. Also, the queen bee has the longest lifespan by far in the colony. She can live up to five years; however, a lifespan of one to two years is more common. The mortality rate of the queen is quite high with 60 percent of the queens dying within the first year (Erickson, Carlson, and Garment 11). The queen varies greatly from the other members of the colony. She has a smaller brain and eyes, yet a larger body. She is designed to produce thousands of eggs, and can even lay more than 2000 eggs per day. Though there are often multiple queens that are birthed at a time, there is only one reigning queen of the colony at one time. The first queen to hatch out of her cell seeks out and destroys the other queen larvae before they can develop fully. Throughout her life, the queen is catered to. The workers groom and feed the queen. The queen is the most important member of the colony; she is responsible for producing all other members of the colony. The method of reproduction in the honey bee colony is very unique. The queen bee is responsible for essentially all of the reproduction in the colony. Just five days after reaching adulthood, the queen bee will go out on what are called mating flights. On a mating flight the queen will fly out from the nest, followed by several drones. A drone will catch up to the queen bee and begin mating with her while in flight. After the queen bee has received the sperm from the drone, she will release the drone and he will fall to his death. The mating process kills the drones. The queen will mate with six to eighteen drones, or until she has enough sperm for her egg laying. Following the mating process, the queen’s fertile ovaries will enlarge; this allows for the queen to be more efficient with her egg laying. The queen can produce two to three thousand eggs per day, which is over two to three times her body weight. If the queen wishes to produce a drone, hen all she has to do is withhold the semen from the egg. The queen will lay her eggs in the cell of the comb where they will stay, being taken care of by the worker bees, until they hatch. Along with the queen, worker bees can produce drones. The workers account for a very small portion of the eggs though. The most notorious feature of the honey bee is by far their ability to sting. Nearly everyone has experienced the sharp pain of a bee sting at some point in their life. The worker bees and queen bee are capable of stinging; the drones cannot sting since they do not have a stinger. When a worker bee stings, their barbed stinger and poison sac are ripped out of the bee and the bee ends up dying. However, the queen bee does not have a barbed stinger, her stinger is smoother, and therefore she can sting multiple times without endangering her health. Honey bees, of course, have enemies and threats to their colony. These enemies vary in sizes and detriment to the colony. Some common enemies are spiders, insects, and animals. The largest threats to the honey bee colony include bears, badgers, wax moths, and humans. Bears are attracted to the colony by the sweet honey. They are very powerful and can severely damage a colony with a few swipes; the bears try to knock the combs so that they can eat the honey. This is where the defense system of the honey bees kicks in. During the bear’s attempted break in, it is common for the bear to receive quite a few stings that leave them howling in pain. There is a specific type of badger that is known for hassling honey bee colonies; they are appropriately called the honey badgers. The honey badgers team up with the honey guide, a type of bird, in finding and raiding the honey bee comb. Wax moths are detrimental to the honey bee colony for different reasons than the badgers and bears. The wax moths are an invasive pest that seeks out week bee colonies. When they find a week honey bee colony, the wax moths quickly take advantage of the situation. Wax moths can completely destroy the wax combs of the honey bee nest. The greatest threat to the honey bee population cannot be blamed upon anyone but the humans. Humans account for a large amount of damaged hives, poisoned bees, and even aid in the spreading of diseases in the bee population. Human’s pesticides can be very etrimental to the honey bees; this is largely an unintentional result, yet it is a serious problem. The largest point of interest and most useful trait of the honey bees is their aid in the pollination of flowers and crops. Without the honey bee’s contribution in pollination, farmers and gardeners around the world would be struggling to grow any form of plant life. Pollination occurs when a worker bee travels from the hive in search of food. The worker bee gathers nectar from different flowers. While the worker bee is obtaining the nectar, she is also covering herself with pollen from the flower. The bee will visit many different flowers throughout the day, and she will be bringing the pollen from different flowers to other flowers and therefore pollinating them. The honey bee is the most significant contributor of all pollinators, responsible for pollenating â€Å"more than 100 agricultural crops in the United States† (Honey Bees are Important Pollinators, para. 4). â€Å"In the United States alone, it is estimated that honeybees accomplish 1/4 of the pollination needed for all fruit produced for human consumption – an estimated $10 billion worth of work each year! (Great Plains Nature Center). The Western honey bee is of vital importance to the human population. It provides many necessities and has proven itself useful to humanity in many ways. Not only is the honey bee vitally important to the welfare of the human civilization, the insect is also a very interesting and fascinating model of a society based on hard work and efficiency. There is something benef icial for everyone to learn in observing the Western honey bee that aids them in becoming a better individual and contributor to society.

Book review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Book review - Essay Example With the little savings of Jurgis, the voyage of the immigrants which include the father of Jurgis Dede Antanas, Teta Elzbieta and her children, and Ona’s cousin Marija Berczynskas came to reality. The family settled in Packingtown, a district of Chicago known for its meatpacking industry. Jurgis has resolved that he would work hard. Soon the family realized that life for immigrants in Packingtown is not easy. They all have to work, including women and children, in the slaughterhouses for twelve hours a day to survive. The family encountered numerous problems such as falling prey to scrupulous real estate agent, corruption, unsanitary working condition, unfair labor practices, and poverty. Jurgis was jailed when he attacked Phil Connor, the boss of Ona, when he learned from Ona that Phil had raped her and threatened to fire her from her job if she will not give in to his sexual demands. After his imprisonment, Jurgis returns to his family, only to be told that they were alread y evicted from their house. The fate of Jurgis and his family was turning very bad and came to its worst turn when Ona dies giving birth to her second child at the age of eighteen. This was followed by the death of their first child who drowned in the muddy street. These series of misfortunes led Jurgis to seek sojourn in the rural part of the country. Jurgis found out that even outside Packingtown, he could not escape poverty. Jurgis returns to Chicago and worked several odd jobs outside of the meatpacking industry such as digging tunnels, being a political hack, and con-man. But his self-worth and sense of personal pride and integrity continue to bother him, thus he drifts in life with no meaning and direction. One night, as Jurgis was seeking for a warm place to stay, he found himself listening to a speech of a charismatic Socialist speaker. The message struck him and he realized that the company of these people advocating socialism gives him the sense of belonging and has given him a purpose in life. From then on, Jurgis attended socialist gatherings and it beckons to him that socialism as well as labor unions are the answer to his and his family’s sufferings and to all the others who have endured what he went through in life. The story ends with a socialist rally that comes after a victorious win in the political arena of the socialist group. The speaker gives remarkable encouragement to his fellow socialist and proclaims â€Å"Chicago will be ours!† Part Two – Context of the Novel The novel was written in 1906, a time when a huge number of immigrants from Europe come to the United States to answer the call inscribed clearly on the famous Statue of Liberty – â€Å"Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free.† It was written to strongly uphold that socialism was the answer to capitalism and as such was truly polemic in nature. Uston Siclair was successful in presenting the negative impacts of capitalism such as corruption among the capitalists and wage slavery among workers. Sinclair has introduced the â€Å"goodness† of socialism in every turn of event in the story particularly to the immigrants who were unskilled and therefore employers offer low wages for measly jobs. The workers could not demand better wages because there were so many immigrants willing to do the work.

Inadequacies of accounting ratios as tools of financial analysis Essay

Inadequacies of accounting ratios as tools of financial analysis - Essay Example The multi-discriminant analysis and methodologies involving ratio disaggregation or decomposition such as DuPont analysis are commonly used as well for the purpose of financial analysis. Any user of financial statements must comprehend the limitations associated with ratio analysis. Ratios are attractive as they are simple and convenient. The ratios can only be as relevant as the data upon which they are based and the information with which they are compared. One glaring limitation of ratios is that they are based on historical cost convention, which can lead to limitations in measuring performance. By not incorporating information on changes in price, inaccurate assessments of the enterprise's financial condition and performance result. Also, all users must keep in mind that where estimated items (such as depreciation and amortization) are large and significant, income ratios lose some of their credibility. Income recognized before the end of the life of the business is just an approximation. In analyzing the income statement, the user should be aware of the various assumptions used in the computation of net income. As one writer aptly noted, "The physicist has lon g since conceded that the location of an electron is best expressed by a probability curve. Surely an abstraction like earnings per share is even more subject to the rules of probability and risk." (Cheney, 1971) Probably the greatest pitfall of ratio analysis is the difficult problem in achieving comparability of firms in a given industry. Achieving comparability among firms requires that the ratio analysis (1) identifies the basic differences existing in their accounting principles and procedures and be (2) flexible enough to adjust the balances (modify the raw data) to achieve comparability. In any peers group ratio analysis it is important to compare ratios to the industry average ratios to see how one company compares to its competitors or even to compare with similar companies or within industries. In US one often uses Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) or North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) codes as part of peer ratio analysis. Majors like Dun and Bradstreet provides "average" ratio levels for firms in a number of different industries. Deviation from the "industry norm" by a firm may indicate one of the following: 1) a strength in the firm, 2) a weakness in the firm, or 3) a difference in the operating characteristics between the firm and the "industry norm." One must realize that a ratio that is higher than the norm is not necessarily better. This is obviously true for the debt-equity ratio and perhaps less obviously true for the current ratio. A current ratio that is too low may indicate that the firm is not able to raise cash easily; a current ratio that is too high may indicate that the firm is not investing its funds in the most profitable assets (fixed asset investment is often more

Motivation theories for drug use and addiction Research Paper

Motivation theories for drug use and addiction - Research Paper Example These early views on the reasons for continued drug use have been replaced by recent research which have contrasting perspectives that suggest that negative reinforcement is not a strong influence on drug motivation. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the motivation theories for drug/ alcohol use and addiction. Motivations for Drug Use Contemporary theory of the motivation for drug addiction makes paradoxical claims about the psychological basis for seeking drugs. Drug-seeking is considered to result from subjective craving for the positive effects of the drug, which suggests that this behavior is intentional. On the other hand, a key factor in the clinical diagnosis of drug dependence is that drug-seeking is resistant to the intention to quit, which means that drug-seeking is habitual or automatic. This is paradoxical, because drug seeking cannot be concurrently intentional and automatic (Hogarth & Chase, 2011). There are several reasons for people to take drugs. These include â€Å"peer pressure, relief of stress, to have increased energy, to relax, to relieve pain, to escape reality, to feel more self-esteem, and for recreation† (Columbia Encyclopedia, 2009, p.14591). Individuals resort to taking stimulants to keep alert, or cocaine for the feeling of excitement it produces. Similarly, athletes and bodybuilders may take anabolic steroids to increase muscle mass. There are numerous stressors which increase the risk of alcohol use disorders in humans. In alcohol and other drug dependent (AOD) people, drug craving is increased by internal and external forms of stress, which can also trigger relapse (Wand, 2008). Stress is generally defined as â€Å"any stimulus that challenges physiological homeostasis – that is, which alters the balance or equilibrium of the normal physiological state of the organism† (Wand, 2008, p.119). However, various forms of stress have different physiological consequences, stimulating different combinations of signaling molecules. These molecules aid in cell-to-cell communication, such as neurohormones, and produce distinctive outcomes on physiological processes. Therefore, the type and duration of stress have to be specified, for planning the treatment. Further, individuals respond differently to a particular type of stress, â€Å"and physiological and behavioral responses tend to be associated with dis tinct coping styles† (Wand, 2008, p.120). An interaction of environmental and genetic factors play a part in both susceptibility to alcohol and other drugs (AOD) use disorders, and in people’s responses to stress. Prenatal and early life stress can have impacts on the body systems involved in the stress response, for the entire life span, thereby predisposing an individual to certain diseases. This early programming effect is partly affected by â€Å"epigenetic mechanisms that alter heritable traits without manifesting as changes in the DNA sequence, and which also can aid in the development of AOD disorders† (Wand, 2008, p.120). Motivation Theories for the Use and Addiction to Drugs and Alcohol An Affective Processing Model of Negative Reinforcement Baker, Piper and McCarthy (2004) reformulate the negative reinforcement model of drug addiction. They propose that the escape and avoidance of negative affect is the prepotent motive for

Optical systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Optical systems - Essay Example These layers make them resistant to electrical and mechanical interferences. The refractive index feature makes plastic optics fibre multimode. The predecessor glass fibre come in single mode of step index or graded index profile. An illustrated diagram on how the two types guide the light is shown in appendix A figure 2. Three different light waves travel through the fiber. While the first one passes straight through the center of the core, the second mode passes at a steep angle and bounces back through the concept of total internal reflection. The third mode surpasses the critical angle, refracting into the cladding (www.fiberoptics4sale.com). The second mode is able to cover more distance than the first mode. These rays travel through a different paths, they thereby have different modes taking different time to reach. The variation so visible is termed as the dispersion, ultimately giving muddied signal at the receiving node. The output pulse varied against the input pulse. Increased index of refraction in the centre of the core leads to slowing down of the speed of some light rays, resulting in the rays to reach the receiving end at nearly about the same time, ultimately minimizing the dispersion and increase in the bandwidth (www.fiberoptics4sale.com).. Fibres work on concept of propagation of light, the light in a fiber-optic cable passes through the core of the fibre. At that time, if there are bends, it will result in reflection across the cladding .This concept is termed as total internal reflection. The part of light that skips through changes the direction on entering the outer layer due to refraction. Refraction occurs due to varying speeds and varying different refractive index (Wiley J,Ungear S (1990). Total internal reflection occurs (see appendix A figure 4 )when light passing through one material gets intact with a different

Influence of buddhism on asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Influence of buddhism on asia - Essay Example Buddhism is one of the older religions of the world and is considered a noble religion. It originated in India. Buddhism is a religion of tolerance and breeds’ compassion in its followers. This is reflected in the character of the people that have adopted it and has spread this philosophy to the religions that it has influenced. Buddhism spread to many parts of Asia and is still the religion of many countries in Southeast Asia and South Asia. There are close to four hundred million followers of Buddhism in the world today. Advent of Buddhism in India: The religious philosophy of Buddhism is founded in the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who is believed to have lived from 566 to 486 BCE. The word Buddha does not mean just the founder of the religion, but is a description of the person, who is the true follower of Gautama Buddha and has attained enlightenment and thereby freed himself from the cycle of birth and death.

The Key stone XL Pipeline Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Key stone XL Pipeline - Research Paper Example The sponsor of the project is TransCanada who is ready to cater for implementation and performance of the project (Devaney 2011). President Obama rejected the establishment of the XL Pipeline 0n January 18, 2012 by postponing the decision. He was against the idea since the Pipeline will affect people’s underground water supply and Oglala Aquifer. After the president’s decision of rejection, the gas prices rose leading to rise of many protestors who participated in both sides for and against the Pipeline. As TransCanada states, the XL Pipeline would create twenty thousand construction and manufacturing jobs. The consumers are the stakeholders whom this decision made by Barrack Obama affects. This is because they are the one that live near the pipeline. The Oglala tribe is the one whom this decision majorly affects since they are the one who live nearest when compared to other tribes. People in the states advocate for the project since it will open job opportunities to the society around. Opening of job opportunities will lead to development of the areas and improved standards of living to the people around (Devaney 2011). The pipeline would pollute water and air in the area and harm wildlife and birds. This is a critical concern that is worth analyzing critically since environmental pollution should not be encouraged. Pollution of fresh water from household consumption is a crucial issue of concern to the government of the United States since people cannot live without water. Water is an extremely essential commodity that is vital for human survival (Rickert 2011). The decision for and against will have effects to the consumer which might be positive or negative. An ethical dilemma lies where the TransCanada faces the decision on whether to start the project or not. This is a critical area since the decision affects the citizens in the States in either way. Professionals have to analyze the decision that

Communication Essay Example for Free

Communication Essay Communication is an important part of human interactions; in fact, its peculiarity in humans contributes largely to our differences from animals and other primates. It is the soul of human existence, the pillar of progress and brain field of every civilization. Successful relationships are initiated and sustained at the altar of effective communication skills. The crux of every culture is communication It has various forms; this is what has further equipped us with the ability of explore nature to discover treasures and develop our ever-changing world. These forms include verbal communication, communication by signals, symbols, and styles. Of these forms, oral communication is commonest and crucial; it informs the use of languages and symbols. There are three purposes of oral communication message: to inform, to persuade and to entertain. Information is power; it is the impetus that has drawn progresses in the world and it has contributed also to the evils of wars and leadership mishaps. Oral communication message is useful to bring a data or information to bear for others to become aware of it. It increases awareness and knowledge base. The second purpose is to persuade: this is also important in every human interaction. Motivation is a key weapon in business which great entrepreneurs posses and transfer to their workers/employees. It is a driving force that can best be put into use by spoken words. A vivid understanding of the human nature and life proves that persuasion is crucial to our survival, and more importantly for every business enterprise. The last purpose is simply to entertain. The three are synchronous, as an oral communication message can inform, positive, negative or neutral. It can also be persuasive. While the latter may be serious, oral messages can be used for relaxation. Scenario: an entrepreneur discovers the possibility the enlarging the coast of the business by solving an identified business problem. He informs his research managers and market analysts to undertake a survey of the market status to confirm the possibility. Report is produced and other employees are informed of the new development. The Chief executive officer calls a meeting and informs management and staff. He motivates them to the new challenge and how every one is important to achieve the expansion. Even while he presents the report and motivates the workers, he also cracks jokes, a form of entertainment.

Realism Vs Liberalism And Issues In World Politics Politics Essay

Realism Vs Liberalism And Issues In World Politics Politics Essay The behavior and the different relations between states have always been difficult to grasp, understand, and to explain. Looking back at the historical events and comparing them to the current international issues, there are many parallels to be noted as well as many contradictions in the ever changing global arena. Due to the complexity of the world, there have been many attempts at creating a system to be able to explain the way the international relations unfold and function. Many theories have been produced, many have failed and a few have been proven to be the closest to the truth. This paper will discuss the two most predominant theoretical systems currently existent realism and liberalism. It will further compare the two schools of thought, examining the gaps and the advantages of each one looking back at historical events, including the two World Wars and the Cold War, and the current global environment. In order to better examine each theory and to apply it to the past or current events, one must first understand the essential background and arguments behind each theory. Classical realism took place at a very dark time in Europe. Inter state conflicts were occurring on regular basis, poverty was seen everywhere, there was little hope for the future and essentially violence was always a logical step in order to fulfill ones goal whether it being an individualistic goal or that of the state. Philosophers such as Machiavelli and Hobbes painted a dark, pessimistic picture of the world with almost no hope for a peaceful future. While the two scholars lived in different times and in different places of Europe both have rationalized in a similar manner. Just like other realists, they saw human nature as being essentially evil and selfish, they believed that military readiness at all times was essential, and that peaceful cooperation between states was only possible through the balance of power on the global scale. Through great minds such as Machiavelli and Hobbes came many followers supporting similar ideas and what is known now as realism was created. The key elements behind this particular theoretical system lie in the belief in anarchy, evil human nature, military power and the importance and the power of a state. It is a theory based on the assumptions that the behavior between states is selfish and relies on a self-help system, thus you cannot hope for a mutual cooperation and must only help yourself. It states that countries just look out for their own interests, which makes the state the most important actor or the ultimate power for this theory. Also it is essential for states to be prepared for any conflict or war, thus military power of the state is also one of the main goals, even more important than economic power. Realism looks at the world power as an anarchist and believes in relative gains, meaning some participant benefit more than others. In other words, a realist will not s ettle for an exchange or a relationship in which the other participant will gain more due to the fact that it inevitably puts the state in a weak and risky position. Thus, the core points of concentration of realism are the anarchical state of the world, the brutality of human nature, and the importance of power of the state. In other words, realists do not look to change the world, they believe in seeing the world for what it is and working with it to create the best possible outcome to fulfill self-benefiting interests. Liberalism, on the other hand, paints a completely different outlook on the world. It looks down on the pessimistic ways of the realists and argues for the possibility of a brighter future and more peaceful world. Classical liberalism took place during the age of Enlightenment where the dark years of Europe were hoped to be put behind. The pioneers of liberalism, such as Rousseau and Kant, refused to believe that human nature was evil. Instead, they argued that it is in the nature of human beings to be cooperative and to be able to achieve solutions in a negotiating peaceful manner  [1]  . Thus, war was not the next logical step to a conflict or disagreement; it was only a matter of providing the proper tools for the individuals and states to be able to come to a peaceful, mutually benefitting resolution to any conflicting situation. It is a theory based on the assumption that countries believe in progress and sets not only states, but also the individuals and international insti tutions as the most valuable actors in international relations. This theory believes in the cooperation and unity of human kind, and thus is extremely against military power. Instead, liberalism strongly believes in international institutions and institutionalized peace in the world. In other words, liberals are very optimistic and believe that the use of military power is never justified. Also, this theory believes in absolute gains, meaning all participants become better off. Liberals state that there is no reason why a state or an individual should not engage in a relationship or an exchange in which the other party will benefit more, due to the fact that both participants will be at an absolute gain. Further, liberals, unlike realists, do not support the idea of zero-sum game. In a conflicting situation, no party needs to be at a complete loss; the conflict could be resolved within a judicial way in which both parties could reach an agreement to benefit each other.  [2]   As mentioned previously, liberalism highly believes in cooperation with collective gains. This idea is followed by the belief in strong international institutions to provide not only conflict resolutions tools for the states, but also to create a complex international interdependence, which creates a strong global bond and further ensures international peace. Due to the fact that liberals put such importance on international institutions, the roles of the state could be seen as less when compared to the realists view. Through the importance of institutions, the transnational bonds and dependence is created, which is also highly important to the liberal school of though.  [3]   While realists believe that the approach to peace should be done through the balance of power and military readiness and strength, liberals have a complete opposite point of view. The amount of power and military control that the state achieves will not bring global or state peace. Rather, the liberals propose peace through democratization, in which citizens are given individual freedom and the right to have a say in the states actions; and through the establishment of international law, which would be enforced through the international institutions and organization  [4]  . Another approach to peace that the liberals suggest is through the opening of the markets and the promotion of free international trade. One of the first advocates for this idea was the philosopher and economist Adam Smith. He stated that if markets are left untouched by the state, the invisible hand of the economy would guide them to the most productive and beneficial outcome. The term he used was laissez-faire, which essentially means to leave the market untouched to function on its own  [5]  . Through this powerful idea years later the new version of liberalism was created, called the neo-liberalism. These particular liberals still held the same core believes as the classical liberals, however with a much stronger concentration on the international economy with a much weaker role of the states  [6]  . Based on these two brief definitions, it is observed how much both theories contradict each other, in other words, liberalism and realism have very different approaches to explaining and understanding the world and the way it functions. However, both theories have proven their points of view along the years with critical events that have already occurred in the past and that have drastically changed the worlds history. Both theories have gaps and advantages to fulfill each others gaps. Realism fails to explain the diminishing importance of the transnational connections, a world that is slowly becoming borderless. In addition, until the creating of neo-realism, realists did not give much importance or explanation to the ever growing number of international institutions and organizations. Liberals on the other hand do provide a strong explanation of the factors mentioned above; however fail to explain the occurrence of so many conflicts, even with peace making international organizatio ns in place; nor are they able to explain the rise of poverty and the great inequality in the world. Both theories provide strong points of view and the next portion of this paper will look how both theories thrive in the explanation of historical and current events or drastically fail giving in to the opposing theoretical system. Prior to discussing which theory best describes and explains the period of Cold War, it is crucial to comprehend the events leading up to the situation which made the Cold War possible. Thus, the two World Wars must be looked at through both theoretical systems in order to conclude which theory was most prominent at the time. The devastation produced by World War I was evident to the entire world and left a horrific picture behind. It started when the Archduke Ferdinand from the Austrian-Hungarian Empire was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist seeking to free his ethnic group from the Austrian rule  [7]  . However, this death was really just the excuse for many political conflicts and hostilities between states going on at the time to unfold. These conflicts lead to a disastrous view of Europe, where more than ten million soldiers lost their lives and three big empires collapsed. As well as the rise of the Soviet Union and the formation of the League of Nations were also the consequences of this war, which completely changed the face of Europe and the world. World War I was the perfect event for the realists to prove their assumptions of the worlds behavior. Germany, one of the most preponderant states at the time, strived for the success that England achieved with the Industrial Revolution. This led Germany to look for more power trying to expand their territory and becoming more predominant on the global scale. In other words, Germany was only serving its own national interest, rather than global, using military power without thinking of the consequences that this could bring to others or how would others be affected. This perfectly supports the realist theory. Also, realists defensive arguments evidence that the cult of offensive school, interpretations of the World War I origins, is wrong because World War I was not an effect of a defensive attack, since Germans understood the tactical advantages of the strategic defense level and they already expected a long war. In other words, Germans went to World War I with eyes wide open  [8]   . For liberals, on the other hand, World War I was just the war to end all wars. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was also convinced that another devastating war could occur if the states recommence practicing power politics, thus liberals tried to reform the global system by taking several actions. One of the actions was to create global institutions in order to contain the raw struggle for power. At the end of World War I, the League of Nations was created, which was the incarnation of this part of the liberal thought  [9]  . However, the liberal thought collapsed and the realist assumptions rose once again when World War II erupted. When World War II initiated it gave the opportunity to the realists to prove that war is inevitable and that human nature is evil and violent. After World War I, the Germans were forced to look for an exit of the severe situation, probably the worst situation ever, which they were facing due to the consequences that this war brought upon them. After the First World War, most European states blamed Germany for all the disaster caused in Europe and thus they humiliated Germany under the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 promoted international laws, international institutions such as the League of Nations, and fairness to all the damaged countries emphasizing stability and cooperation, which seemed to be an ideal move for the liberal thought. However, once this treaty implemented, the outcome of the behavior of the states turned out to actually prove the realist school of thought yet again. Thus, in theory this was a liberal movement, but in practice it turned out t o be realist due to that everyone was actually just looking for their own interest and using this as an excuse to obtain benefits for their own, for example, the division of Europe. Once again, it was a state against another state fighting for the most gains in order to be at the top of the anarchical international system. The Cold War was the transition of power of the two global powers at the end of World War II, United States of America and the Soviet Union  [10]  . The Cold War was an event where both states fight to have the best power ratio of military capabilities without ending in a disastrous scenario such as what happened in the first and second world wars, where millions of lives were lost and cities were devastated. However, this war could had have ended in the worst scenario that the world would have ever experienced, due to that technology and military research were at the peak of worlds history and also these two had exponentially raised due to the previous wars. In addition, not only Europe would have been involved in this war, since this war not only consisted of having the most military power, but also the most networking or the relationships with other countries  [11]  . In other words, if one country would have attack the other, then they would had been attacking the allied countries as well, which at the time not only involved European countries and strong Asian countries, but world wide. This war was also a fight between liberalism and realism, due to that all the disputes between both countries were fought with the intervention of international politics and international institutions, but at the same time each country was also preparing for war by the development and research of new military weapons. However, this was a silent war since none of both states ever openly announced that the actions were taken in order to take precautions of the rival countrys actions. Nevertheless, the world knew what was going on. This war was an event that raised several critiques against the liberal thought, since the military concerns of both of these states, the will of the global power and the hostility shown between each other, were all clear signs of a third world war. There was no reason to doubt it, since history was being repeated. As the League of Nations wa s created by the liberals in attempt to avoid another world war, Germany was gaining enough power in its realist way, overpowering any international institutions to start another world war. This time, following the disastrous events of WWII, another attempt by the liberals was made in creating the United Nations and yet again the two hostile blocs the Soviet Union and the United States were able to overpower the newly established international institution and started their own silent war recreating an anarchical global environment. Therefore, there was no reason why a war could not occur, if this previous event proved that no matter what actions taken, a state could do what ever it wished. In other words, the United States of America or the Soviet Union could have easily gone over the United Nations decisions, since there was no other state with the military and economic capacity that could overpower their wishes  [12]  . Thus, the realist assumptions of the world proved itself to be true. The liberals, of course, would argue that due to the existence of such institutions as the United Nations an actual war never occurred on the soil of either one of superpowers. In the liberal point of view, the UN was definitely a factor in avoiding the war. This was not known for a fact until the end of the Cold War in 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. At this point, the global arena proved that peace could be achieved by international negotiations, international institutions regulating the disputes and most importantly making rational decisions. The world proved that human nature is not totally evil or violent and that there still exists some hope for the world to prove that liberal assumptions of the international relations are not entirely wrong. It is evident that the realist assumptions and predictions were predominant even throughout the Cold War, but it was also clear that the liberals had a point there was room for progress. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War began to reshape international politics and relations. While through the century realism seemed to have been in the lead in its explanations and descriptions of the structure of the world, the global environment all of a sudden began to drastically change and liberalism began to make sense yet again  [13]  . There are still many controversies about which theoretical system best describes the contemporary global politics and interstate relations. While realism was clearly much more accurate in the descriptions of the world throughout most of the 20th century, this paper will argue that liberalism is much more precise in the explanations and its understanding of the world when it comes to current issues. The first aspect that should be noted is the vast amount of international organizations and institutions that is currently existent and is constantly on the rise. These organizations vary from international humanitarian aid (ex. World Vision), to peace keeping and conflict resolution (ex. United Nations), to regulations of international trade (ex. WTO), and many more. These are a perfect example of transnational unifications, which are absolutely borderless and are extremely powerful on the global arena. Thus, the belief of realism that the state is the most important actor in the global system is disproven. There are other actors, that are equally, if not more important than the role of the state. These organizations believe in progress and in making a difference in the world, therefore human nature is not necessarily evil. In fact, there are more and more individuals that come together and dedicate their lives in order to help others. Another interesting phenomenon which has been happening is the decline of interstate conflicts but an outburst of intrastate conflicts. While these conflicts do prove that human beings are still capable of horrific crimes, it also proves that the state is no longer a central factor. These are groups of individuals that are bound by religion, society, a common goal or something other than being a part of the same state. Further in these cases, the state itself cannot control what is happening in its own country. Such conflicts still exist and especially were numerous in the 1990s; such as the genocide in Rwanda, Somalia or the horrific process of the collapse of former Yugoslavia  [14]  . These conflicts bring another interesting factor the organizations and the individuals from all over the world, which come together to help the war-torn place; starting from conflict resolution, to peace keeping, to after the conflict humanitarian and developmental aid. These individuals not onl y dedicate their lives to such careers, but in most cases risk losing their own lives. This is a further proof that while global peace is not achieved, human nature is not evil in most cases. Thus, progress is not only possible, but also extremely achievable. Democracy is another aspect that liberals strongly promote. In the past two decade more and more states have been trying to implement democratic ways of governing their states. Most of the former Soviet states have been moving towards achieving that goal, some have even successfully transformed their political systems and have entered the European Union, such as the Baltic States (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia)  [15]  . In addition, liberals strongly believe in democratic peace thesis that states that democratic countries will not go to war against each other. This theory is greatly proven over time as most of the Western world is democratic and has not experienced great conflicts since World War II.  [16]   While both theories provide strong and credible explanations of the way the global interactions occur and unfold, it is always crucial to keep in mind that these interactions change as does the global environment. This paper concludes that throughout most of the 20th century realism provided a clearer explanation than liberalism, including both World Wars and most of the Cold War. However, examining the current events and issues it is clear that the global political atmosphere has gone through a drastic transformation, precisely following the Cold War. Thus, considering this change it is only fair to conclude that liberalism provides a better explanation and description of the world today. That is not to say that realism is completely discredited nor does this suggest that there will be no room for the realists approach in the future, it still provides valuable lessons and explanations for humanity and perhaps will gain its dominance as the world experiences further transformations.

Analysis of the Flying Geese Model for Japan

Analysis of the Flying Geese Model for Japan The last 15 years we have observed an enormous growth of activity by multinational corporations, as measured by inflows and outflows of foreign direct investment (FDI). On the other hand of world-wide growth, Japan is in the 18th year of stagnation with a prolonged financial malaise. Almost two decades ago, Japans phenomenal growth was admired and even feared as unstoppable in the world. It is almost shrinking economy. However FDI has grown much faster. The worldwide nominal GDP increased at 7.2 percent per year. Also the worldwide imports grew at 9.2 percent and worldwide nominal inflows of FDI increased at 17.6 percent between 1985 and 1997. In the 80s to late 80s, we have observed Japanese financial bubble which was based on industrial advance after the Second World War. These figures mentioned above prove the new financial investments while Japanese economy was growing rapidly, retained earnings of affiliates, and cross border mergers and acquisitions during grew within 70s to 90 s. In this paper, the flying-geese model is useful in capturing the essence of Japans successful industrial upgrading and Asias trade-led growth against world economies but fails to explain why such success would ever lead to the present economic predicament and still happening especially in China even the world economic crisis. This is because it ignores the institutional, especially financial, underpinning of Japans catch-up strategy. Japanese academic scholars and policymakers came to often described Japans industrial advance in terms of the catching-up growth with a model so-called flying-geese model. This model was well-used among media also. What were the key enabling institutional features of Japans once effective Flying Geese catch-up strategy? How did they function? Why did they come to cause the 1987 1990 bubble and the current financial imbroglio? How did Japan increase Outward FDI? How will Japan be reformed? Also by using Flying Geese model argues that the conventional Flying Geese model of catch-up strategy, though instrumental in depicting the essence of latecomers (notably Japans) industrial upgrading and Asias trade-led growth, has so far neglected the institutional (especially financial) dimension of such a catch-up, that Japans present financial imbroglio is paradoxically the very outcome of its successful Flying Geese strategy that was once pursued under a special set of institutional arrangements after the Second World War that is, the Flying Geese catch-up regime became soon obsolete and even rigidified over years, trapping Japan in the present financial quagmire, and so far, the reform is, strangely enough, market driven in the sense that two key market imperatives inward mergers and acquisitions (MAs) by foreign investors and the mandate of the Net-Driven New Economy-have begun to compel Japan to remold itself more compatible with the norms of global capitalism. Mergers and acquisitions (MA) are a large proportion of the whole especially, among the developed countries with their value constituting 49 percent of total FDI flows in 1996 and 58 percent in 1997 (UNCTAD, 1998). Between 1983 and 1995, foreign affiliates of all nationalities accounted for between one-quarter and one-third of worldwide exports, according to figures from UNCTAD (1998). It is noteworthy that Japan once did play the role of Asias leading target of FDI Inflow before the burst of the 1987- 1990 asset bubble. Some commentators have estimated that multinationals are responsible for 75 percent of the worlds commodity trade (Dunning, 1993). Firms that invest often have some type of intangible asset they want to keep within the firm, rather than exploit through licensing. Furthermore, investing firms are often the larger firms in their industries. All these developments and issues need to be examined as path-dependent evolutionary events within a reformulated the flying-geese model, an institutional model of Flying Geese catch-up. In microeconomic aspect, this paper emphasizes those causes of Japans current predicaments that are not adequately examined. Japan is not in a real-sector crisis; its fundamentals (technological and productive capabilities and wealth accumulation, through there is definitely a hangover of excess capacity) are as strong as ever. It is in an institutional crisis. There are good reasons why reforms are so hesitantly implemented that is, not so swiftly and son decisively as outside pundits think Japan should do, particularly when they apply the logic of Anglo-American market-based tenets. In the contrast of world macro point of view in the model, also focusing into micro aspect, After-all explaining how Japanese economy grew rapidly to catch-up western economies, this paper would like to introduce micro aspects of the world entities by using two distinct types of theoretical models describe the two distinct forms of multinational activity. In models of horizontal activity, mainly focus a trade-off between the fixed costs involved when a company setting up a new plant and the saving transport and tariffs in variable costs on exports. These factors are the key concerns to make the decision for any entities to go multinational. In models of vertical activity, since there is a cost difference in the world for example labour cost, low material cost, and so on. This kind of cost difference is a factor to attract many entities to invest Foreign Direct Investment. Tariffs and transport costs both encourage vertical multinational activity, by expanding price differences. There are disadvantage if headquarters and the affiliates pay more expensive cost. Those two types of models are used to observe latest multinational activity My second objectives in this paper are to discover main facts and tendencies about the multinational activities by different geographical regions to explain these facts by using the horizontal and vertical comparison as well as flying-geese model. My focus from regions, country down to Japan on the location of FDI means that this is not a comprehensive survey of all issues raised by FDI. With overview of theory, I also introduce an overview of the facts about the location of multinationals. Empirical studies explain the pattern of regional location especially Japan. 1. INTRODUCTION I.I. The top largest amount of foreign direct investment (FDI) is between high income developed countries, U.S. (US$2,093Bil.), U.K. (US$1,348Bil.), France (US$1,026Bil.), Germany (US$630Bil.), Canada (US$521Bil.), Italy (US$364Bil.), Russia (US$324Bil.), Japan (US$133Bil.), and noticeably Belgium (US$748Bi1.), Netherland (US$673Bil.), Spain (US$537Bil.), which are also received high amount of FDI. Among BRICS, we must note that China (US$1,511Bil.), Brazil (US$328Bil.), and India (US$76Bil.), which are increasing. The rest in 2007 figure of GDP but there has been rapid growth of investment in some developing and transition regions during the 1990s. Thus, the ratio of FDI inflows to GDP has remained fairly stable for developed countries, at around 0.9% of GDP. But for developing and transition countries, this ratio has increased from 0.8% in the late 1980s to 1.9% in the mid-1990s. Outward investment from developing countries has also risen recently, but remains modest compared to bo th developing country GDP and total world outward investment. 1.2 In the mid-1990s, multinational firms undertook total 66% of US exports. Also 45% of these exports went directly to affiliate companies. The one of the biggest economy in the world is U.S. for over four decades. Take a look of US affiliates in this case as an example. The US affiliates which produces their service and products in overseas is three times larger than US exports. It is important for the multinationals in the world economy has steadily increased in micro aspect which is not happening right now controversially. Multinational activity in high income countries where as developed countries are overwhelmingly remaining the equal level as previous years as horizontal. This type of economy involves in production in overseas then import to the host country market. There is a higher proportion of activity in developing countries as `vertical which involves that manufacture of intermediate stages of the production process then ship to home country to assemble to the final products. Thus, less than 10% of Japanese affiliate production in the EU is sold back to Japan, compared to the numerous affiliates who brings goods back from developing countries 20% or more. There is similar case as Japan to US affiliates also. Only 4% of US affiliate production in the EU is sold back to the US, whereas for developing countries the figure goes up to 18%. Surprisingly, from Mexico more than 40% goods are brought back to US market. This trend tends to be all over the world where they produce service or products in the local market and generate the turn-over within the same strategic region. 1.4 A large share of investment stays close to home-country or neighbouring countries. For example, US investments tends to be heading towards EU countries to adjust for distance with the largest markets which the home countries are culturally-familiar. FDI is a good deal more geographically concentrated than either exports or production as a whole. Thus, while US affiliate production in Europe is as about 7 times larger than US exports to Europe, this ratio goes down to about 4 times for the rest of developed countries and to almost 1.6 for developing countries. 1.5 There are more horizontal investments by the major outward investors in large markets. For the US invests more towards Europe, and especially the UK. Because of there are no barrio in language, which may help. For Japan and Europe directs their investments towards the US but the majority of investment from EU stays within the EU region also. There are certain tendencies we can observe that the major outward investments direct close to their neighbouring countries for example from the US to Mexico, the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, and Japan to Asia. 1.6 The scale of multinational activity is probably better measured by looking FDI flows and together with sales of multinational firms. We can observe more FDI supply within developed countries predominantly. The most of developed countries controlled 89.8 percent of worldwide FDI stock in1997, compared to 10.2 percent for the developing and transition countries. In 1996, there was $612.0 billion worth of goods exported but about 66 percent of the goods were exported by US multinational parent companies. The most of US multinational parental companies were sold to exporters own foreign affiliates or related companies. Recent FDI flows show some decline in the dominance by the developed countries; whereas during the period 1988-92 they accounted for 92.5 percent of total FDI outflows, but due to Japanese bubble burst and Asian Currency crisis during the five years from 1993 to 1997. The share fell down to 85.3 percent. From 1988 to 1992, developed countries received FDI inflows at an average annual rate of 0.90 percent of their GDP. On the same period, developing and transition countries received FDI at an average annual rate of 0.78 percent of their GDP. The inflow rate of developing and transition countries doubled to almost 1.91 percent of their GDP from 1993 to 1997. There was decrease among developed countries slightly down to 0.87 percent. The share of worldwide FDI inflow increased from 21.8 during 1988 to 1992 to 39.8 percent in the 1993 to 1997 period at the developing and transition economies period. As we can observe in the figure 1, there was dramatically increased. The vivid difference between developing countries and transition countries to developed countries is measured by sheer economic size, and the difference in outflows relative to GDP is perhaps less than might be expected. The distribution of FDI is quite uneven among developing countries. From the 1993 to 1997, only 10 countries as Singapore, Malaysia, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Argentina, Hungary, and Poland accounted for two-thirds of all inward flows. China alone received an annual average of 30.6 percent. Indeed, China has the biggest increase in flows among developing countries. Total world FDI flow rose from $3.2 billion (2.9 percent) during 1988 to 1992, to $45.3 billion (12.2 percent) for 1993 to 1997. This means it increased 14.2 times bigger in amount which counts about five percent of Chinas GDP in 1997, remains strong still. The main sources are Considered to be Chinese business groups resident in Asia, Chinese businesses resident in China. In contrast, there is part of this world where it has decreased FDI in time to time. All of sub-Saharan Africa including South Africa received an annual average of 3.2 percent during 1993 and 1997, a decrease of almost 2.1 percentage points from the annual average of 5.3 percent during the 1988 to 1992 period. There is slight increase sub-Saharan Africas share, during 1988 and 1992 from around 1.0 percent, to around 1.3 percent between 1993 and 1997. This helped in its inflows of FDI relative to host country income, as in figure 1, where I see some increase in FDI to Africa, but at levels downsized by more inflows to East Asia and Latin America. Within developed countries, the share of the worlds FDI stock was as follows; the US who controlled 25.6 percent, compared to 45.1 percent for the European Union 15, and 8.0 percent for Japan in 1997. So the biggest single country investor was the US then to Japan in percentage-wise. Japan is in the economic doldrums and even in a potentially imploding financial crisis at that time. It struggles to rebound from a decade of stagnation. However, Japan still invested towards the world FDI investment as 8 percent of share. Before the bubble burst in 1991, Japans phenomenal growth was once admired and even feared as a juggernaut. Japan and the rest of Asia grew in tandem and basked in clustered regional prosperity, which the World Bank (1993) called the East Asian miracle. During 1985 to 1997 the developed countries received fully 71.5 percent of FDI flows. Of the G-7 countries, France, Germany, Italy and the UK sent more than three-quarters of their 1997 FDI flows to the rest of the OECD ; Canada, Japan, and the US sent more than 60 percent most recently. The common pattern was appearing as intra-industry FDI investment which was almost one-quarter and one-third of worldwide exports, according to figures from UNCTAD (1998). The most shares were accounted by foreign affiliates of all nationalities. Most of FDI investments went to advanced industrial countries. One popular way of describing such a regionally agglomerated growth with its FDI was the model of so-called flying-Geese formation. In this depiction, Japan served as Asias lead FDI investment target, the NIEs as the second-ranking and the ASEAN-4 as the third ranking geese, and China as a new latecomer. Characteristically, most FDI investments is concentrated heavily in industries characterized by high levels of research and development, a large share of professional and technical workers, and production of technically complex or differentiated goods. However Asias financial crisis seemingly disarrayed FDI investment during 1997-98. By looking at Japanese economy with the enormous FDI effect ever since the start of the 1990s Japan, a supposedly Asias lead FDI target, has been mired in a self-inflicted financial crisis ever since the bubble of 1987-1990, as well as Europe, Japanese flows boomed during the late 1980s, although have now fallen back to a position broadly in line with existing stocks which is now made all the more dangerous with a triple deflationsimultaneous declines in the prices of goods, real estate, and equity shares. The Japanese economy is in a vicious circle of a drop in share prices ?a decline in banks asset value and land prices as collateral? a credit crunch ? more business failures ? a rise in bad loans ? a further drop in share prices. Very recently (March 2001), the Bank of Japan adopted a drastic monetary policy to flood the second economy with liquidity. This policy is called iyoteki kanwa (quantitative easing), and unprecedented (some called twilight-zone) monetary policy designed to prevent price destruction in hopes of stimulating demand. Please refer the Figure 2 which shows the time series of FDI outflows relative to source country GDP. Outward flows from the developed countries in average about 1.3 percent of their GDP each year from 1993 to 1997. Noteworthy, the EU had much higher rate than rest of the world which was almost 2 percent of GDP if I calculate together among 19 countries of first EU. Ignoring the fact of intra-EU investments was more common. There was increase of outward FDI flows of their GDP from developing countries during 1988 to 1997 as average 0.3 percent to 0.8 percent during 1993 to 1997. While intra-OECD investment and intra-industry investment within the OECD have been long established facts, an emerging trend is the rise of FDI to developing countries. Before introducing through the flying-geese model, would like to go through the Outward FDI of Japan, the United States and Europe to give good insight of economic development and how the outward FDI increased as the economies grew world-wide. Multi-nationals are spread all around the world to exploit their chance of conservatives may describe as kokunai sangyou kuudouka in Japanese means, emptying national industries. Next chapter will introduce country or region-wise of development of Outward FDI. We would see how it happened on the time line of growth, and why it was necessary to activate as whole in the world by introducing the Outward FDI of Japan, the United States and Europe. 2. Location of multinationals: THEORY There are two main reasons why a firm should go multinational. To better serve a local market To benefit inputting from low cost FDI in search of low-cost inputs is often called `vertical FDI. Vertical FDI has its character of slicing the production cost to relocating part of this chain in a low-cost location or country vertically. For example, when a Japanese electronic manufacturing even though component manufacture companies which assemble electronic goods in Asia as Indonesia, Malaysia or Thailand, and final sales might take place in the US or third countries. The biggest merit is cheap inputs of labour in different skill levels starting from primary commodities, intermediate parts, or even externals, such as knowledge spill over. Vertical FDI usually create trade because products are shipped in different location when they find cheaper labour cost of assembling points away from the location where they produce small components and/or intermediate goods before assembly. The distinction between vertical and horizontal FDI can sometimes become blurred because one plant may serve both functions, others may not . It is totally depended on local cost to open a plant to serve a market. In contrast, FDI designed to serve local markets is often called `horizontal FDI. It has its character of involving duplicating parts of the production process as additional plants are established to supply different locations. This vertical FDI usually substitutes for trade, since parent firms replace exports with local production. The motive is to reduce the costs involved in supplying the market such as tariffs or transport costs or in some other way to improve the firms competitive position in the market. 2.1 Vertical FDI and factor endowments: This vertical FDI was introduced by Helpman (1984, 1985) and Helpman and Krugman (1985). Later on, Heckscher-Ohlin extended trade model with two factors of production and two sectors, one perfectly competitive, producing a homogeneous good under constant returns to scale, and the other producing differentiated products under increasing returns to scale. Firms in the increasing returns significant part of multinational activity takes the form of firms shifting a stage of their production process to low-cost locations in recent years. The idea of this recent vertical FDI trend is due to different parts of the production process have different input requirements. Since input prices vary across countries as Japan is high labour cost as many developed countries compare to the developing, it may be profitable to divide production, undertaking unskilled labour intensive activities in the country where they have sufficient output of labour. Many sectors have distinct headquarters and production activities in different countries and locations. When the firm could not find any incentive separating headquarters and production, firm may not activate multinational activity for example, in this vertical FDI model will create similarity of free trade in goods because the international equalisation of factor prices are almost equal to the contribution. However trade does not equalise factor prices if the relative endowments are sufficiently different. When one economy has a much higher endowment of labour relative to capital than the others, then there is a merit to go multinational and also profitable for firms to divide activities, putting the more capital-intensive part as headquarter of the firm in the country where there is enough capital. The capital-abundant economy evolves an exporter of functional headquarter to its production operations located in another economy. If the transport costs on trade in final goods are higher than factor price, then it may imbalance the equalisation the consequent international differences in factor prices. The consequent international differences in factor prices increase, then many firms may profit the incentives to divide production unless relative endowments are identical. Also in this analysis, there is regarding to the costs of dividing production. Firms may have to pay additional costs when they have their offices, headquarters and productions in the different countries which make multinational production less attractive. It depends on the interaction between these forces when comes to the decision whether firms go multinational, and where they locate different activities in the different countries. To analyse whether firms to go multinational or not, may very depends on the cost of transportation in distances from an economy where the firm located to the location where they import goods and/or components which they export at least some of their final output. Transport costs both on imports of intermediate goods and final products and on export sales are higher when firms are located far away from its origin. Since many firms need to face heavy transport to the locations further away from the origin, it is not attractive. In particular, the price of factors used intensively in the locations export activity will be low, so investment projects that are intensive users of these factors may be attracted to remote locations. The cost matter has always been discussed. It can be a big penalty for firms. It was introduced by Radelet and Sachs (1998). It is nearly impossible to escape from the cost but since these locations also face transport costs on their other trade-able activities, their factor prices will be lower. In general, when firms choose to locate in a particular country, it depends on the factor intensity of the project, relative to the factor intensity of other exports from the country, together with the intensity of project, relative to the transport intensity of other goods traded by the country. This shows some patters of the projects which they locate close to established manufacturing regions, and which will go to the countries far away.5 2.2 Horizontal FDI and market access: Many firms can choose if they want to supply by exporting or by producing locally in the different countries. This way is already being multinational. Under what circumstances will it choose to become multinational? Firms are required to pay additional cost when they want to establish local production factory. Some are production costs, both variable and fixed, their size depending on factor prices and technology. Also on top of establishment cost, some may have to pay more additional costs for dealing with foreign administrations, regulations, and tax systems. To cut down their additional cost, firms may create joint venture with local firms, give licensing arrangements, or sub-contract. The presence of plant level economies of scale will raise the cost of establishing foreign plants. As long as they can gain merit if they compare the cost production at home to the foreign factory. On the other side of effect, switching from exporting to local production will bring cost savings, the most obvious of which are savings in transport costs or tariffs. If the factory is close the market, they gain more advantage in shorter delivery times and ability to respond to local situations and preferences. Even when some accident or damage occurred to the operation of delivery from the factory to market, they can sort instead of sending labour from headquarters. Theoretical modelling of this sort of FDI has typically posed the issue as one of a trade-off between the additional fixed costs involved in setting up a new plant, and the saving in variable costs transport costs and tariffs on exports. Analysis is usually based on a `new trade theory model, in which there are distinct firms, and the issues of increasing returns and market structure are addressed explicitly (Smith, 1987, Horstmann and Markusen, 1987, and Markusen and Venables, 1998). The first point is that the value of FDI to the firm may realize net costs exceed in its budget, even a firm gain strategic value by establishing local production. In an monopolized environment each firms sales depend on the marginal costs of all other firms. If one firm reduces its marginal costs then it may stimulate rival firms to reduce their sales, and this will be of value. Essentially, firm who invested FDI may pay a commitment to supply the local market since they control the market. This commitment may change the behaviour of competitors. Turning to the location of FDI, the theory predicts that FDI will replace exports in markets where the costs of market access through exports especially in the countries where tariffs and transport costs are high, or where the costs of setting up a local plant are low. These predictions seem to be at odds with the facts of high (and rising) FDI between economies with low (and falling) trade barriers for example, within the EU and between No rth America and Europe, although the apparent contradiction might be resolved by the simple fact that countries with low trade barriers also tend to have low barriers to FDI. The theory also predicts that FDI is more likely to replace exports the larger is the market. There are two reasons. The first reason is that the fixed cost each plant by plant may differ. If the market is bigger, then the output of production has to be the larger. The second is that larger markets will tend to have more local firms. This means more competition in the big market than smaller markets. This competition in the big market will lead to a lower price. If the marginal cost of supply through exports is relatively high, be particularly damaging to the profitability of exporting, tipping the firms decision in favour of local production. Markusen and Venables (1998), they extend these models to a full multi-country framework, analyse the mix of multinational and national firms operating in each country. They sorted the multinational firms in the each country in size, and also in other economic dimensions, such as technology and factor endowments. Thus, as Europe has become inte grated as EU where is expanding the economic integration. Since EU creates common registration and trade barrier to the foreign investments for their economic protection on the other hand costs of supplying have been declining. So it has become more worthwhile for US and Japanese FDI to enter European market. The market size and factor endowment models suggest that all locations have some production, but only some locations will have FDI, meaning that FDI will appear to be clustered. Therefore there is some evidence that FDI is spatially more clustered than other forms of production. This could appear in the data for reasons we have already seen. Since foreign investors are able to access to invest to privatization programs easier than since cross-country variations in legal framework barrio has been lowered, particularly in transition economies where are growing, where Alternatively, clustering of FDI may be due to positive linkages between projects, creating incentives to locate close to other firms. There are several important mechanisms. One is the spill-over created by research and development. Another is gaining confidence and experience, and the possibility that firms come together; firms are not always sure whether FDI to a particular country is a good idea until they get results or advice from other firms. So they rely on the successful advice of forefront firms which have been invested FDI as a signal of underlying national characteristics. Arising supply and demand for intermediate goods have been extensively analysed, but not particularly from the perspective of FDI. 3. Japanese Outward FDI: I now review the empirical studies on the determinants of the location of FDI. I therefore organize the material of Japan. Japan is one of the heavily researched country who seems to be benefiting from FDI. First, the more than half of investment to developed countries were shared countries as Japan, the US, and EU. However the US was the dominant host. The feature of Japanese multinationals has a distinctive character which is the way export strategy has effective together with investment strategy. The heaviest Japanese investments were occurred in the US in the 1970s. During 1970s was in distribution boom rather than production. Japanese companies could market their durable-goods exports, such as automobiles. There were subsequent investments on automobile industries for their productive facilities to spread distribution networks within the world market especially in the US. Another result of this export success was that the threat of quantitative restrictions on exports, starting in the late 1970s, turned into a significant motivator for Japanese FDI in the US and Europe (Gittelman and Dunning 1992). They described that Japanese investment in both the US and Europe responded to such threats in trade balance, though investment activity in the US seemed to lead investment activity in Europe. It continued until several years during the 1980s. Japanese were expanding their distribution network in Europe while the Japanese were putting most of their efforts into productive facilities in the US in the early 1980s. After 1980s, there was trade off balance issue occurred in the US and Europe, so after investment in productive facilities, follow-on investment arrived to establish local production of inputs. A second characteristic of Japanese FDI is the significant amount of resource-based FDI, since Japan has no resource within their country. Particularly heavy investment was invested in Latin America and Australia (Caves, 1993, and Drake and Caves, 1992). As we see from table 2 that around one third of output from Japanese FDI in these regions is exported back to Japan. The third characteristic of Japanese FDI is its role in the development of the wider East Asian eco nomy. It certainly attracted Japanese investments because lower wage economies as a base from which to supply the Japanese market in short delivery distance and export to third markets which it has involved relocation of Japanese production. While FDI played only an important role after-war reconstruction purpose in the development of some of the first wave of Asian newly industrialised countries as Taiwan and Korea. The s

Rewriting Canonical Portrayals of Women :: Good Bones Margaret Atwood Literature Essays

Rewriting Canonical Portrayals of Women In her collection of short stories, Good Bones (O. W. Toad, 1992), Margaret Atwood (1939 - ) has included Gertrude Talks Back, a piece that rewrites the famous closet scene in Shakespeare ´s Hamlet. The character of Hamlet ´s mother has posed problems of interpretation to readers, critics and performers, past and present, and has been variously or simultaneosly appraised as a symbol of female wantonness, the object of Hamlet ´s Oedipus complex, and an example of female submissiveness to the male principle (Hamlet ´s as much as Claudius ´s). Like other revisionist rewritings produced by women writers in the last few decades, Margaret Atwood ´s short story challenges received concepts of the female, and particularly the "Frailty, thy name is woman" notion that has marked so much canonical literature. Recent developments in the humanities, usually grouped under the common label of "post-structuralist theory," have contributed to making us sensitive to the politics of culture, in general, and of literature, in particular. Much thought has been given in the last few decades to how the literary canon emerges and holds its ground, and to the relations between canonical and non-canonical, between the centre and the margins. Post-colonial theorist Edward Said reminds us that "[t]he power to narrate, or to block other narratives from forming and emerging, is very important to culture and imperialism, and constitutes one of the main connections between them" (xiii). Here as in other respects, the political agendas of feminism and post-colonialism overlap; both aim at challenging the canon and at inscribing the experiences of the marginal subject (female and/or post-colonial). Revisionist rewritings are one of the strategies that can serve that purpose; I need not mention the by now many rewritings of such canonical texts as The Tempest or Robinson Crusoe. As regards the author I am concerned with here, Margaret Atwood, extensive attention has been paid to a recurrent feature of her fiction: her repeated reworking of fairy tales, most importantly the different versions of Bluebeard ´s Egg, a re-shaping which culminates in her novel The Robber Bride (1993). I would also point out how what is perhaps her most popular novel to date, The Handmaid ´s Tale (1985), thematizes the politics of reading and writing or, as Hutcheon has aptly put it, "the opposition between product and process" (139). Similar concerns are apparent in the compilation of her short stories under the title Good Bones (1992). If the constructions of womanhood and manhood occupy her in The Female Body and Making a Man, in other stories (There Was Once, Unpopular Gals, etc) it is the literary construction of womanhood that is foregrounded.